The IL-6 Enigma: Highlighting the Complex Relationship between Exercise and Health
Introduction
In the last decade, a transformative shift in our perception of muscles has unfolded, challenging the notion that their impact on well-being is limited merely to their mechanical action and increased blood circulation. This shift is encapsulated in the concept that ‘Exercise is Medicine’. Muscles, once seen as passive actors, now reveal their invaluable role in autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine signalling under specific circumstances, primarily through their contractions. Despite this revelation, the deeper understanding of myokines, crucial signalling molecules exclusively released through muscle contraction, remains unfamiliar to many, including professionals in both exercise and medicine. [1], [2]
The physiological mechanisms set in motion during exercise have
showcased their potential to enhance overall health conditions. The
contemporary molecular comprehension of exercise's influence on health
pathways, particularly its direct impact on inflammation and its interaction
with the broader effects of whole-body exercise, carries significant
implications for mitigating adverse health events. This understanding opens
doors to the prospect of evolving treatment strategies rooted in a nuanced
comprehension of the intricate relationship between exercise and disease
progression. [3]
While cancer takes centre stage in our discussion, given its widespread recognition as a foremost ailment, it's noteworthy that the implications extend beyond to general disease prevention. Recent discoveries add intrigue by defying traditional boundaries, exposing shared causal pathways among diseases typically perceived as distinct on the immune spectrum, including autoimmune diseases, obesity, and mental disorders. This revelation emphasizes the interconnected nature of diseases and underscores the need for a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms.
The IL-6 Paradox
One such physiological mechanism is the activation of Interleukin-6 (IL-6), a pivotal protein in immune system regulation, which paradoxically exhibits a dual role in either preventing or promoting cancer. It serves as a key biomarker in chronic inflammation development and stands as the primary indicator of the severity of various potentially life-threatening diseases. This has spurred substantial pharmaceutical research, particularly in the realm of biologics, where anti–IL-6 receptor monoclonal antibodies are employed as a specific remedy to inhibit the inflammatory impact, especially in severe cases of COVID. [4]
Although it is produced in response to infections and tissue injuries, contributing to fevers in various diseases, its overexpression is observed in nearly all types of tumours. Elevated levels of serum IL-6, found in the bloodstream, are linked to the severity of COVID-19 and play a central role in the 'cytokine storm,' thereby influencing the risk of COVID mortality. Additionally, IL-6 is implicated in autoimmune conditions such as Fibromyalgia, showing significant connections to fatigue, functional status, sleep quality, and pain parameters. Its overexpression in blood serum is also a predictive factor for the risk or extent of heart and related diseases, disrupting insulin signalling and leading to type 2 diabetes. It influences platelet production and platelet activation, accelerating clotting and intravascular coagulation. Additionally, IL-6 is associated with various other conditions, including major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and Parkinson’s disease. Significant rises in IL-6 have also been observed with increased levels of stress and insomnia, and is predictive of therapy outcomes for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). It is also the primary indicator of ageing and age-related conditions such as Dementia, fertility issues, irritable bowel disease (IBD) and Crohn’s Disease, and as will be discussed in The Adiposity Connection, in obesity as well. [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10]
Cancer patients with elevated levels of serum IL-6 and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α, an associated pro-inflammatory cytokine) was shown to have 6-times greater risk of mortality over the course of a medical follow-up. Elevated levels of IL-6 within the tumour microenvironment establish a strong correlation between inflammation and cancer. In this context, IL-6 fosters tumorigenesis by regulating key cancer hallmarks and shielding cancer cells from therapy-induced DNA damage, diminishing the effectiveness of anti-cancer drugs. [11], [12], [13], [14], [15]
However, IL-6 exhibits a dual role, functioning both as a pro-inflammatory cytokine (henceforth referred to as cIL-6) but also as an anti-inflammatory myokine (henceforth referred to as mIL-6). When triggered by the endocrine and immune systems to fight against disease or injury, it acts as a pro-inflammatory cytokine, promoting inflammation. In this state, it serves an initial immune protective purpose, but due to its volatility and non-specific function, it can potentially cause more harm than good, even becoming protective of cancer cells as previously mentioned. Conversely, during exercise-induced muscle activation, it is expected to exert an anti-inflammatory effect, countering cytokines such as IL-6 (its cytokine counterpart) and TNF-α, an exclusively inflammatory cytokine. This occurs, however, only if muscle microtrauma is not induced, thereby initiating the mentioned external cytokine protective effect, namely, inflammation. [16]
Therefore, depending on the context, IL-6 can either prevent or promote cancer development. Released from skeletal muscles during exercise, IL-6 potentially enhances insulin sensitivity, stimulates anti-inflammatory myokines in the blood, and mobilizes protective effects against cancer. Conversely, sustained IL-6 signalling at sites of inflammation, such as microtrauma due to physical activity, through infectious diseases, and in the greater tumour microenvironment, promotes chronic low-grade inflammation and activates tumour-promoting pathways. [17], [18], [19]
Anti-Inflammatory
Effect of Exercise
Aligned with the premise of the IL-6 Paradox, it has been observed that
heightened levels of pain intensity associated with delayed onset muscle
soreness (DOMS) correspond to increased levels of serum IL-6 24 hours
post-exercise. In animal studies it was found that unconditioned mice had unrestrained
muscle inflammation after treadmill activity, marked by the rapid accumulation
of inflammation-promoting cells in their hind leg muscles. Their muscle cells
also had strikingly swollen mitochondria, a sign of metabolic abnormality. This implies that exercise and activities inducing pain pathways
might potentially contribute to an environment conducive to cancer development,
particularly in individuals with compromised physiologies. This susceptibility
may be evident in those with existing cancer, those recovering from
chemotherapy, or individuals with a higher predisposition to cancer, such as
those with excessive adiposity, as will be further elaborated in the next
section. [20], [21],
Conversely, a contrasting finding indicates that young, already
highly conditioned individuals engaging in intermediate and reasonable
exercises experience significantly decreased levels of both serum IL-6 and
TNF-α immediately after the activity than before. This reduction therefore
contributed to an overall decrease in inflammation levels than that measured
before the activity, facilitating the healing and rapid recovery of muscles. It
appears that the mechanism associated with the temporary elevation of IL-6
myokines, when not associated with muscle trauma that simultaneously releases
TNF-α, results in the eventual decrease of both cytokines in the serum
environment. IL-6 is generally higher during activity and can elevate up to
100-fold higher during exercise than the general background IL-6. [22], [23], [24]
IL-6 release coupled with the release of TNF-α as a protective autoimmune response, may explain the IL-6 paradox. Though the exact physiological mechanism is linked to how the mIL-6 molecule combines with surface receptors during exercise, thereby limiting its beneficial reactions to in and around the actuating muscles. On the other hand, cIL-6 binds to a soluble version in the blood or serum giving it a much longer shelf life and the ability to impact all cell types, driving inflammation and is the predominant pathway in disease formation, propagation, and perpetuation. This is similar to a topical anti-inflammatory applied through the skin causing localized benefit, as opposed to one being ingested in the blood holding the potential to cause systemic damage. [25], [26]
Moreover, given that elevated cIL-6
is usually a response to injury, continues to persist for the duration of the
damage, and is a key contributor to the development of chronic inflammation.
And as mentioned in the 3rd paragraph
of The I L-6 Paradox, the prevalence of cIL-6 can be
protective of cancer tumours, mitigating the efficacy of chemotherapies, and
consequently a major potential impediment to cancer treatment and recovery. [27]
In summary, acknowledging the IL-6 Paradox and understanding the substantial role of myokine IL-6 in potentially mitigating the impact of cancer through physical activity emphasizes the need for an exercise approach that fosters IL-6 myokine production without inducing secondary trauma linked to delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Conversely, the latter is likely to heighten the risk of cancer proliferation due to prolonged increased levels of serum cIL-6 in the blood and the general area of trauma, with the potential to induce chronic inflammation, promote tumorigenesis and increase susceptibility to infection.
The Complex Role of Regulatory T-Cells
Recent laboratory studies on animals, as of November 2023,
shed more light on the specific mechanisms limiting the destructive impact of
exercise-induced inflammation. These studies suggest that individuals who are
not accustomed to exercise may lack the necessary protective mechanisms against
inflammation induced by physical activity. Moreover, these unconditioned
subjects appear to experience considerable damage to their mitochondria.
Of particular note is the typical proliferation of regulatory T-cells, or Tregs, which occurs with consistent and prolonged exposure to regular exercise. Tregs serve as a protective factor against exercise-induced and other inflammation. Tregs are a subset of T-cells with a specialized role in regulating and suppressing immune responses to prevent excessive reactions that could lead to autoimmune diseases or chronic inflammation. It typically takes up to 6 weeks to develop sufficient protection with regular and progressively increased exercise, referred to as a state of fitness. However, this protective response does not appear to adequately develop in some cases, leaving cells indefinitely exposed to the effects of inflammation.
In this context, healthy functioning T-cells can serve as a primary defence against cancer and can potentially be significantly enhanced by appropriate exercise. However, exercise parameters such as intensity, duration, and frequency need to be evaluated in more detail to optimize this effect. [61], [62]
The average unconditioned individual, lacking adequate Treg responsiveness, would likely have less ability to clear out inflammation through activity, as high-conditioned athletes have shown is possible. Thus, activating similar activity pathways to clear out inflammation is not straightforward, as a higher threshold for activating autoimmune responses could readily be triggered until a reasonable level of conditioning (in other words, fitness) is achieved.
The Adiposity
Connection
Shared pathways between high adiposity and cancer have been identified, linking both conditions to low-grade inflammation. This inflammation is a prominent factor contributing not only to significant overweight but also to cancer formation. Individuals classified as highly overweight face an increased risk of developing various high-incidence cancers, with mortality risk rising relative to body fat percentage (BFP). [33], [34], [35], [36], [37], [38], [39]
This connection is notably associated with a dysfunction in the
myokine activation of IL-6 in the context of high adiposity. This failure is
implicated in both the development of high adiposity and also in cancer. The dysfunction suggests that the post-exercise
repair process, particularly when causing muscle microtrauma, may be
insufficient in clinically obese individuals, hindering their ability to
regulate inflammation effectively. [40], [41], [42]
This revelation underscores the crucial role of muscle activity in inflammation regulation, proposing that the post-exercise repair process may be insufficient, impacting its ability to control inflammation in both cancer and high adiposity. Exercise potentially induces substantial physiological changes in the immune system, akin to external stresses like surgery, trauma, or sepsis, eliciting hormonal and immunological responses. [43], [44], [45], [46]
In simpler terms, microtrauma in muscles stimulates the production of protective hormones, such as the IL-6 cytokine and TNF-α, a cytokine released externally by the immune system to protect against perceived danger. Conversely, with optimal contraction without microtrauma, mIL-6, along with other beneficial hormones such as irisin, is produced internally by the sarcomeres through muscle contraction, functioning as productive anti-inflammatories.
This observation establishes a link between cellular repair capacity, adiposity and the potential proliferation of cancer as a result of added trauma. In alignment with the Mitochondrial Dysfunction Theory of Cancer, elevation in inflammation levels potentially is a contributing factor to cellular and mitochondrial damage, and therefore the propensity for cancer proliferation. [47], [48]
It's crucial to highlight that high adiposity encompasses more than just being overweight or obese; it generally includes individuals with low muscularity relative to the volume of adipose tissue, i.e., body-fat percentage (BFP). Consideration of the "Obesity (or BMI) Paradox" is important in this context, where many individuals classified as obese exhibit a higher likelihood of survival from various high-risk health conditions. What this suggests is, while obesity might put you at higher risk of getting cancer, it also puts you in a better position to recover from treating it. [51], [52], [53], [54]
In this regard, obese individuals that are mobile would require a significantly greater muscle load to conduct normal activity. In other words, their significantly elevated weight disposes them to engage in a much higher level of Vigerous Intense Lifelike Physical Activity or VILPA than normal. This increased survivability, therefore, is directly linked to the degree of muscle mass, regardless of BMI. Additionally, low muscle mass coupled with relatively low fat (persons with very low BMI and reasonable to high BFP) significantly contribute to the risk of metabolic conditions. In this context, low muscle mass or poor muscle tone and function emerge as key indicators for the development of a host of diseases. In other words, lean muscle mass – the overall weight minus weight from body fat – is a better indicator of overall health, than either BMI or BFP. [55], [56], [57], [58], [59], [60]
An essential observation is that the protective effect of good functioning muscles is critical to health. Moreover, an exercise or therapeutic approach capable of fostering myokine signalling, as opposed to cytokine protective signalling created as an immune response, has the potential to reduce inflammation levels, mitigate chemotherapy resistance, alleviate sarcopenia (commonly known as cachexia in cancer patients), safeguard healthy cell mitochondria, and improve the overall fitness and functionality of individuals affected by cancer. Moreover, such a capability would prove beneficial for those dealing with weight-related issues in general, as well as associated diseases like diabetes, hypertension, in addition to cancer.
Conclusion
The emerging understanding of myokines and their pivotal role in
health, particularly in the context of exercise, presents a paradigm shift in
how we perceive the relationship between physical activity and well-being. The
IL-6 paradox, exemplified by its dual role as a pro-inflammatory cytokine and
an anti-inflammatory myokine, underscores the complexity of these signalling
molecules and their impact on disease progression.
The comprehensive exploration of myokines, the IL-6 paradox, and
the adiposity connection underscores the significance of exercise as a potent
tool in promoting health. The nuanced understanding of these molecular
mechanisms opens avenues for tailored exercise interventions that can
potentially reduce inflammation, enhance chemotherapy effectiveness, and
improve overall fitness. As we continue to unravel the complexities of
myokines, the integration of this knowledge into clinical practice holds
promise for advancing preventive and therapeutic strategies for a range of
health conditions.
The next chapter in this discussion is the protective role of Regulatory T-Cells or Tregs, in protecting cells against inflammation, but also how they can be protective of cancer cells against one's immune defences and chemotherapy.
After successfully managing inflammation, the subsequent phase in
the health equation involves exploring how the body can attain maximal
mitochondrial oxidative capacity during exercise. This aspect is examined in "Lactate
Metabolism in Health and Disease: The Interplay with ECS, Myokines, and Mitochondrial
Oxidative Capacity."
[Newton Fortuin, 7 January 2024]
Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Exercise
The following were observed from KineDek users’ experiences:
- Sweating is generally not experienced during sessions although the body does warm up. This is indicative of the relative absence of fever type conditions akin to conditions of sepsis resulting from increased inflammatory cytokines, particularly IL-6, which usually is induced by conventional exercise. [4], [46]
- They generally report a feeling of lightness mentally and throughout their body. This is usually accompanied by increased mood and energy. [28], [29]
- Those with chronic pain conditions typically experience up to 5 days of remission of their pain. [30]
- Those with hay fever and sinus conditions experience no or low incidence during the typical season.
- Lower incidence of infections among weekly users. For instance, an individual who had battled stage 4 lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and bone cancer, who had completed chemotherapy just before starting Kinedek sessions, remained free from infections during the one-year period after initiating KineDek use. The haematologist overseeing the case noted that the person's body successfully resisted a potent respiratory strain in October 2023. Despite having had a lung infection, the individual exhibited no symptoms other than a mild fever. The haematologist, aware of the heightened risk of respiratory infections in the post-chemotherapy weakened state, remained especially vigilant during this period. He indicated that all his blood indicators were in the normal range. [31]
- MD and physiologist Dr Margo de Kooker is a 100-mile runner who used the KineDek for three months. She reports that she has experienced roughly 80% improved recovery from muscle soreness (a day instead of 5 days) compared to her typical recovery time after an ultra-marathon event when doing a KineDek session a day before or on the day of the event. [32]
The aforementioned observations suggest that the use of KineDek leads to a reduction in the overall inflammatory profile of users for up to 5 days, particularly in the presence of an existing injury. Conversely, when there is no return of chronic inflammation, it suggests the absence of an underlying injury. The observed enhanced recovery in athletes in the days following use implies an improved protective resilience during this period. While it can only be speculated upon, the improved recovery after activity in both conditioned and unconditioned individuals and the reduced proneness to the severe effects of infection hints at a potential increase in muscle-residing Tregs activity, as will be discussed below, a major factor associated in improved outcomes for cancer.
The Adiposity Connection
Those who typically battle to lose weight consistently lose weight with KineDek use, without any observable dietary change. The once weekly 20-minute session alone in terms of energy expenditure, however, does not account for the reported weight loss. [49], [50]
References
[1] Mancinelli,
R.; Checcaglini, F.; Coscia, F.; Gigliotti, P.; Fulle, S.; Fanò-Illic, G.
Biological Aspects of Selected Myokines in Skeletal Muscle: Focus on Aging.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 8520. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22168520.
[2] Pedersen
BK. (2023). From the discovery of myokines to exercise as medicine. Danish
Medical Journal. Retrieved from https://ugeskriftet.dk/dmj/discovery-myokines-exercise-medicine.
[3] Hojman
P, Gehl J, Christensen JF, Pedersen BK. (2018). Molecular Mechanisms Linking
Exercise to Cancer Prevention and Treatment. Cell Metab. 2018 Jan
9;27(1):10-21. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2017.09.015. Epub 2017 Oct 19. PMID:
29056514. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29056514/.
[4] Tanaka
T, Narazaki M, Kishimoto T. (2014) IL-6 in inflammation, immunity, and disease.
Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2014 Sep 4;6(10):a016295. doi:
10.1101/cshperspect.a016295. PMID: 25190079; PMCID:
PMC4176007. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4176007/.
[5] Guirao
JJ, Cabrera CM, Jiménez N, Rincón L, Urra JM. (2020). High serum IL-6 values
increase the risk of mortality and the severity of pneumonia in patients
diagnosed with COVID-19. Mol Immunol. 2020 Dec;128:64-68. doi:
10.1016/j.molimm.2020.10.006. Epub 2020 Oct 14. PMID: 33075636; PMCID:
PMC7556792. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7556792/.
[6] Ahmed
R, Soliman N, El Gheit RA & Elwan S. (2022). Serum interleukin-6 in primary
fibromyalgia syndrome patients: Impact on disease burden, severity, quality of
life and sleep. The Egyptian Rheumatologist, Volume 44, Issue 1, 2022, Pages
15-18, ISSN 1110-1164. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1110116421000715.
[7] Mossmann,
M., Wainstein, M.V., Mariani, S. et al. Increased serum IL-6 is predictive of
long-term cardiovascular events in high-risk patients submitted to coronary
angiography: an observational study. Diabetol Metab Syndr 14, 125
(2022). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s13098-022-00891-0.
[8] Mossmann,
M., Wainstein, M.V., Mariani, S. et al. Increased serum IL-6 is predictive of
long-term cardiovascular events in high-risk patients submitted to coronary
angiography: an observational study. Diabetol Metab Syndr 14, 125
(2022). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s13098-022-00891-0.
[9] Ting
EY, Yang AC, Tsai SJ. Role of Interleukin-6 in Depressive Disorder. Int J Mol
Sci. 2020 Mar 22;21(6):2194. doi: 10.3390/ijms21062194. PMID: 32235786; PMCID:
PMC7139933. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7139933/.
[10] Diaz
K, Kohut ML, Russell DW & Stegemöller EL. (2022). Peripheral inflammatory
cytokines and motor symptoms in persons with Parkinson's disease. Brain,
Behavior, & Immunity - Health, Volume 21, 2022, 100442, ISSN
2666-3546, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100442.
Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666354622000321.
[11] Sarvas
JL, Khaper N, Lees SJ. (2013). The IL-6 Paradox: Context Dependent Interplay of
SOCS3 and AMPK. J Diabetes Metab. 2013 May 24;Suppl
13:10.4172/2155-6156.S13-003. doi: 10.4172/2155-6156.S13-003. PMID: 24244888;
PMCID: PMC3828628. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3828628.
[12] Stoll
JR, Vaidya TS, Mori S, Dusza SW, Lacouture ME, Markova A. Association of
interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α with mortality in hospitalized
patients with cancer. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2021 Feb;84(2):273-282. doi:
10.1016/j.jaad.2020.03.010. Epub 2020 Mar 12. PMID: 32171811; PMCID:
PMC7486231. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7486231/.
[13] Talwar
D, Kumar S, Acharya S, Raisinghani N, Madaan S, Hulkoti V, Akhilesh A, Khanna
S, Shah D, Nimkar S. (2021). Interleukin 6 and Its Correlation with COVID-19 in
Terms of Outcomes in an Intensive Care Unit of a Rural Hospital: A
Cross-sectional Study. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2022 Jan;26(1):39-42. doi:
10.5005/jp-journals-10071-24075. PMID: 35110842; PMCID:
PMC8783243. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8783243/.
[14] Briukhovetska,
D., Dörr, J., Endres, S. et al. Interleukins in cancer: from biology to
therapy. Nat Rev Cancer 21, 481–499 (2021).
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41568-021-00363-z. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41568-021-00363-z.
[15] Kumari
N, Dwarakanath BS, Das A, Bhatt AN. (2016). Role of interleukin-6 in cancer
progression and therapeutic resistance. Tumour Biol. 2016
Sep;37(9):11553-11572. doi: 10.1007/s13277-016-5098-7. Epub 2016 Jun 3. PMID:
27260630. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27260630/.
[16] Petersen
AM, Pedersen BK. The anti-inflammatory effect of exercise. J Appl Physiol
(1985). 2005 Apr;98(4):1154-62. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00164.2004. PMID:
15772055. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15772055/.
[17] Ellingsgaard
H, Hojman P & Pedersen BK. (2019). Exercise and health — emerging roles of
IL-6.
Current Opinion in Physiology, Volume 10, 2019,
Pages 49-54, ISSN 2468-8673. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cophys.2019.03.009. Retrieved
from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2468867319300392.
[18] Orange
S, Leslie J, Ross M, Mann DA, & Wackerhage H. (2023). The exercise IL-6
enigma in cancer. Trends in Endocrinology &
Metabolism. Retrieved from https://www.cell.com/trends/endocrinology-metabolism/fulltext/S1043-2760(23)00154-6.
[19] Pedersen
BK, Steensberg A, Schjerling P. (2001). Muscle-derived interleukin-6: possible
biological effects. J Physiol. 2001 Oct 15;536(Pt 2):329-37. doi:
10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.0329c.xd. PMID: 11600669; PMCID:
PMC2278876. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2278876.
[20] Dogru
Y, Varol SR, Nalcakan R, Nalcakan GR, Akyuz M, Tas M & Ulman C. (2021).
Effects of eccentric exercise-induced delayed onset muscle soreness on
endoplasmic reticulum stress-related markers. Turkish Journal of
Biochemistry, vol. 46, no. 4, 2021, pp. 407-414. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1515/tjb-2020-0014.
[21] Tejua
SOD, Purwantob B & Ayubi N. (2022). Serum Interleukin-6 Level Raise Up In
Time With Muscle Soreness at 24 Hours Recovery From Vigorous Exercise: Does It
Correlate? International Journal of Research
Publications. Retrieved from https://ijrp.org/filePermission/fileDownlaod/4/dd9a9fc5cfb6bde223ca4cbbca0b2281/1.
[22] Amin
MN, El-Mowafy M, Mobark A, Abass N, Elgaml A. Exercise-induced downregulation
of serum interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in Egyptian handball
players. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2021 Jan;28(1):724-730. doi:
10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.10.065. Epub 2020 Nov 5. PMID: 33424360; PMCID:
PMC7783837. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7783837/.
[23] Nash
D, Hughes MG, Butcher L, Aicheler R, Smith P, Cullen T, Webb R. (2023). IL-6
signaling in acute exercise and chronic training: Potential consequences for
health and athletic performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2023 Jan;33(1):4-19.
doi: 10.1111/sms.14241. Epub 2022 Oct 8. PMID: 36168944; PMCID:
PMC10092579.. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10092579/.
[24] Docherty
S, Harley R, McAuley JJ. et al. (2022). The effect of exercise on cytokines:
implications for musculoskeletal health: a narrative review. BMC Sports Sci Med
Rehabil 14. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-022-00397-2.
[25] Nash
D, Hughes MG, Butcher L, Aicheler R, Smith P, Cullen T, Webb R. (2022). IL-6
signalling in acute exercise and chronic training: Potential consequences for
health and athletic performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2023 Jan;33(1):4-19.
doi: 10.1111/sms.14241. Epub 2022 Oct 8. PMID: 36168944; PMCID:
PMC10092579. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10092579/.
[26] Choy
E, Rose-John S. (2017). Interleukin-6 as a Multifunctional Regulator:
Inflammation, Immune Response, and Fibrosis. Journal of Scleroderma and Related
Disorders. 2017;2(2_suppl):S1-S5. doi:10.5301/jsrd.5000265. Retrieved
from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.5301/jsrd.5000265.
[27] Gabay
C. (2006). Interleukin-6 and chronic inflammation. Arthritis Res Ther. 2006; 8
Suppl 2(Suppl 2):S3. doi: 10.1186/ar1917. Epub 2006 Jul 28. PMID: 16899107;
PMCID: PMC3226076. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3226076/.
[28] Vekta
Innovations. (n.d.). The iBoost in Action: A Case Example. Retrieved from https://ibooststudios.blogspot.com/2023/10/the-iboost-in-action.html.
[29] Vekta
Innovations. (n.d.). KineDek Peak Performance & Rapid Recovery Platform:
Increasing Workplace Productivity & Staff Morale. Retrieved from https://ibooststudios.blogspot.com/2023/09/kinedek-peak-performance-rapid-recovery_53.html.
[30] Vekta
Innovations. (n.d.). Unlocking Pain Relief: KineDek's Novel Approach to Chronic
Pain Management. Retrieved from https://ibooststudios.blogspot.com/2023/09/unlocking-pain-relief-kinedeks-novel.html.
[31] Vekta Innovations. (n.d.). Stage 4 Cancer
Case. Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/VektaInnovations/videos/1333849384223098.
[32] Vekta
Innovations. (n.d.). Dr Margo de Kooker Case. Retrieved from https://ibooststudios.blogspot.com/2023/09/kinedek-peak-performance-rapid-recovery.html.
[33] Kern
L, Mittenbühler MJ, Vesting AJ, Ostermann AL, Wunderlich CM, Wunderlich FT.
(2018). Obesity-Induced TNFα and IL-6 Signalling: The Missing Link between
Obesity and Inflammation-Driven Liver and Colorectal Cancers. Cancers (Basel).
2018 Dec 27;11(1):24. doi: 10.3390/cancers11010024. PMID: 30591653; PMCID:
PMC6356226. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6356226/#:~:text=Thus%2C%20elevated%20hepatic%20SOCS3%20levels,might%20ultimately%20lead%20to%20cancer.
[34] Lin
W, Song H, Shen J, Wang J, Yang Y, Yang Y, Cao J, Xue L, Zhao F, Xiao T, Lin R.
(2018). Functional role of skeletal muscle-derived interleukin-6 and its
effects on lipid metabolism. Frontiers in Physiology. Retrieved from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2023.1110926/full.
[35] Pati S, Irfan W, Jameel A, Ahmed S, Shahid RK. (2023). Obesity and Cancer: A Current Overview of Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Outcomes, and Management. Cancers (Basel). 2023 Jan 12;15(2):485. doi: 10.3390/cancers15020485. PMID: 36672434; PMCID: PMC9857053. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9857053/.
[36] Crudele
L, Piccinin E, Moschetta A. (2021). Visceral Adiposity and Cancer: Role in
Pathogenesis and Prognosis. Nutrients. 2021 Jun 19;13(6):2101. doi:
10.3390/nu13062101. PMID: 34205356; PMCID: PMC8234141. Retrieved
from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8234141/.
[37] National
Cancer Institute. (2022). Obesity and Cancer Fact Sheet. Retrievedhttps://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/obesity/obesity-fact-sheet.
[38] Graham
A Colditz, Lindsay L Peterson, Obesity and Cancer: Evidence, Impact, and Future
Directions, Clinical Chemistry, Volume 64, Issue 1, 1 January 2018, Pages
154–162. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2017.277376.
[39] Konstantinos
I. Avgerinos, Nikolaos Spyrou, Christos S. Mantzoros, Maria Dalamaga. (2019).
Obesity and cancer risk: Emerging biological mechanisms and perspectives.
Metabolism, Volume 92, 2019, Pages 121-135, ISSN 0026-0495. Retrieved
from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2018.11.001.
[40] Lutz
H. (2020). Obesity and Inflammation: A Vicious
Cycle. HealthCentral. Retrieved from https://www.healthcentral.com/condition/obesity/obesity-inflammation-cycle.
[41] Nara
H, Watanabe R. (2021). Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Muscle-Derived Interleukin-6
and Its Involvement in Lipid Metabolism. Int J Mol Sci. 2021 Sep
13;22(18):9889. doi: 10.3390/ijms22189889. PMID: 34576053; PMCID:
PMC8471880. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8471880/.
[42] Cancer
Research UK. (2023). How does obesity cause cancer? Retrieved from https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/bodyweight-and-cancer/how-does-obesity-cause-cancer.
[43] Vekta
Innovations. (n.d.). Rethinking Fitness Paradigms: The Impact of Extreme
Exercise and EMS (Electro-Muscle Stimulation) Technologies. Retrieved
from https://ibooststudios.blogspot.com/2023/09/in-recent-years-exercise-landscape-has.html.
[44] Moldoveanu
AI, Shephard RJ, Shek PN. (2012). The cytokine response to physical activity
and training. Sports Med. 2001 Feb;31(2):115-44. doi:
10.2165/00007256-200131020-00004. PMID: 11227979; PMCID:
PMC7101891.. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7101891/.
[45] Małkowska
P, Sawczuk M. (2023). Cytokines as Biomarkers for Evaluating Physical Exercise
in Trained and Non-Trained Individuals: A Narrative Review. Int J Mol Sci. 2023
Jul 6;24(13):11156. doi: 10.3390/ijms241311156. PMID: 37446334; PMCID: PMC10342447. Retrieved
from https://www.rndsystems.com/resources/articles/cytokines-and-overtraining.
[46] BioTechne.
(N.D.). Cytokines and Overtraining. BioTechne R&D
Systems. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10342447/.
[47] Seyfried TN & Chinopoulos C. (2022). Can the Mitochondrial Metabolic Theory Explain Better the Origin and Management of Cancer than Can the Somatic Mutation Theory?. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8467939/#:~:text=In%20summary%2C%20the%20mitochondrial%20metabolic,can%20the%20somatic%20mutation%20theory.
[48] Materon, L. A., & Gilkerson, R. W.
(2014). Two Roads Converging: Mitochondria and Inflammatory Signaling. Herald
Scholarly Open Access. Retrieved from http://www.heraldopenaccess.us/openaccess/two-roads-converging-mitochondria-and-inflammatory-signaling.
[49] Vekta Innovations. (n.d.). Statins and
Myopathy. Retrieved from https://ibooststudios.blogspot.com/2023/10/statins-and-muscle-wasting-common.html.
[50] Vekta Innovations. (n.d.). Wellness & Weight Loss at iBoost Studios. Retrieved from https://ibooststudios.blogspot.com/2023/08/wellness-weight-loss-at-iboost-studios.html.
[51] Kim, K., Park, S.M. (2018). Association of muscle mass and fat mass with insulin resistance and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Korean adults: a cross-sectional study. Sci Rep 8, 2703 (2018). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-21168-5.
[52] Wang Y, Pan L, Wan S, Yihuo W, Yang F, Li Z, Yong Z, Shan G. (2022). Body fat and muscle were associated with metabolically unhealthy phenotypes in normal weight and overweight/obesity in Yi people: A cross-sectional study in Southwest China. Front Public Health. 2022 Oct 6;10:1020457. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1020457. PMID: 36276348; PMCID: PMC9582532. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36276348/.
[53] Amundson DE, Djurkovic S, Matwiyoff GN. (2010). The obesity paradox. Crit Care Clin. 2010 Oct;26(4):583-96. doi: 10.1016/j.ccc.2010.06.004. PMID: 20970043. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20970043/.
[54] Dramé, M.; Godaert, L. The Obesity Paradox and Mortality in Older Adults: A Systematic Review. Nutrients 2023, 15, 1780. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15071780.
[55] Abramowitz MK, Hall CB, Amodu A, Sharma D, Androga L, Hawkins M. (2018). Muscle mass, BMI, and mortality among adults in the United States: A population-based cohort study. PLoS One. 2018 Apr 11;13(4):e0194697. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194697. Erratum in: PLoS One. 2018 May 24;13(5):e0198318. PMID: 29641540; PMCID: PMC5894968. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29641540/.
[56] Prado CM, Purcell SA, Alish C, Pereira SL, Deutz NE, Heyland DK, Goodpaster BH, Tappenden KA, Heymsfield SB. (2018). Implications of low muscle mass across the continuum of care: a narrative review. Ann Med. 2018 Dec;50(8):675-693. doi: 10.1080/07853890.2018.1511918. Epub 2018 Sep 12. PMID: 30169116; PMCID: PMC6370503. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30169116/.
[57] de Morais NS, Azevedo FM, de Freitas Rocha AR, Morais DC, Ribeiro SAV, Gonçalves VSS, do Carmo Castro Franceschini S, Priore SE. (2023). Body Fat Is Superior to Body Mass Index in Predicting Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Adolescents. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023 Jan 23;20(3):2074. doi: 10.3390/ijerph20032074. PMID: 36767439; PMCID: PMC9915438. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36767439/.
[58] de Morais NS, Azevedo FM, de Freitas Rocha AR, Morais DC, Ribeiro SAV, Gonçalves VSS, do Carmo Castro Franceschini S, Priore SE. (2023). Body Fat Is Superior to Body Mass Index in Predicting Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Adolescents. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023 Jan 23;20(3):2074. doi: 10.3390/ijerph20032074. PMID: 36767439; PMCID: PMC9915438. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36767439/.
[59] Cespedes Feliciano EM, Kroenke CH, Caan BJ. (2018). The Obesity Paradox in Cancer: How Important Is Muscle? Annu Rev Nutr. 2018 Aug 21;38:357-379. doi: 10.1146/annurev-nutr-082117-051723. Epub 2018 May 4. PMID: 29727593. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29727593/.
[60] Lee DH, Keum N, Hu FB, Orav EJ, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Giovannucci EL. (2018). Predicted lean body mass, fat mass, and all cause and cause specific mortality in men: prospective US cohort study. BMJ. 2018 Jul 3;362:k2575. doi: 10.1136/bmj.k2575. PMID: 29970408; PMCID: PMC6028901. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29970408/.
Pesheva
E. (2023). Research shows working out gets inflammation-fighting T cells moving.
The Harvard Gazette. Retrieved from https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2023/11/new-study-explains-how-exercise-reduces-chronic-inflammation/.
[61] Langston PK, Sun Y,
Ryback BA, Mueller AL, Spiegelman BM, Benoist C, Mathis D. (2023). Regulatory T
cells shield muscle mitochondria from interferon-γ-mediated damage to promote
the beneficial effects of exercise. Sci Immunol. 2023 Nov 3;8(89):eadi5377.
doi: 10.1126/sciimmunol.adi5377. Epub 2023 Nov 3. PMID: 37922340. Retrieved
from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37922340/.
[62] Tejua SOD, Purwantob B & Ayubi N. (2022). Serum Interleukin-6 Level Raise Up In Time With Muscle Soreness at 24 Hours Recovery From Vigorous Exercise: Does It Correlate? International Journal of Research Publications. Retrieved from
